Thursday, September 26, 2019
How can SMEs(small to medium enterprises) survive in the highly Essay
How can SMEs(small to medium enterprises) survive in the highly competitive industries that are participating - Essay Example The SME sector adds to the economic growth of a country through employment generation and overall sustenance of the economy locally, nationally and globally. Therefore, survival of SMEs needs to be discussed with high priority on developing such strategies that help in the growth of SMEs at regional, national and global level. The world economy depends to a significant extent on the success of small and medium business, which necessitates the urgency of making an inquiry into the reasons of collapsing of small and medium business firms. The research question motivates analysis of the issue from different perspectives like what efforts the SME entrepreneurs are making for their survival, what guidance and financial help the governments and banks are providing worldwide for the survival of the SME industry and a number of other survival strategies. Curiosity arises on the causes of not surviving in the market place due to the associated risks. SMEs are not fighting a lone battle against odds; active government support is provided to them as they are the backbone of a country’s economy. This is the reason why so much attention is paid to the growth of SME sector in all industries. In comparison to small business, medium enterprises are in somewhat better position; they accept the challenges but small entrepreneurs’ market position is very critical due to high cost of raw material, energy, inflation and lack of ready finance. Taking the example of Canada where small business represents 98% of all business, the government is playing a leading role in clearing the roadblocks to survival and growth of small business and leaving no stone unturned in its efforts for SMEs survival. The government is promoting SME by celebrating Small Business Week 2009 and introducing Canada’s Economic Action Plan, providing the mechanism to small and medium businesses to come soon out of the repercussion
Wednesday, September 25, 2019
How do you contribute to the effective governance of an organisation Essay
How do you contribute to the effective governance of an organisation in your role of a management accountant - Essay Example (Colley et al., 2005) Aside from discussing the universally accepted roles and responsibilities of shareholders, board of directors, and the CEO; corporate governance is often used as a policy for business organization in relation with the actual structure of the board, the activism of the shareholders, and overall business performance (Aguilera et al., 2008). As part of our organizational policies and procedures, the board of directors behind the business organization plays a crucial role in the success of corporate governance aside from the increase in the company’s profitability and overall business performance by continuously hiring and firing the company’s top management (Nordberg, 2007; Kim & Nofsinger, 2006: p. 41). In line with strengthening the corporate governance, the company’s executive and non-executive directors are responsible in making important objective business decisions for the best interests of the company (Mallin, 2007: p. 125). The only way for executive and non-executive directors to perform their duty effectively is to have an access to the company’s business information. (Waldo, 1985: p. 5) Therefore, the board of directors are required not only to carefully analyze the corporate financial report but also to meet regularly to discuss the proposed strategic plans and issues that will significantly affect the success of the business (Solomon, 2007: p. 103). Since business’ shareholders are also the owners of the company, these individuals have the authoritative power to manipulate any forms of legal or illegal transactions that will occur in the business (Romano, 1996). For this reason, executive directors are encouraged to take advantage of their rights to look through the company’s official documents. In the process of going through the company’s financial statement, executive shareholders should take note of any signs of unusual business
Tuesday, September 24, 2019
The departed Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
The departed - Essay Example Well, the three characters involve in unethical behavior patterns driven by factors such as legal moralism, codes of conduct, universal responsibility, egoism, free will, and determinism. The discussion focuses on such factors in the two protagonists (police agent and the undercover police agent), reasons for corruption in the criminal justice system, how to use critical thinking in enforcing the law, and the necessity to differentiate between morality and ethics. Scorsese uses glowing money shots relating them to the key characters, to create an outstanding theme, and categorize these characters. The major theme in the story relates to the character's attitude towards money, which molds the behavior for each character (Sickels, 2011). In addition, he retains the viewer’s attention through matching on the scene and implementing blurry backgrounds. The shots taken with the story, the angle by which the producer took, and the glowing film background pointing the major characters , Billy Costigan and Colin Sullivan, whom the story revolves around, all assist in enhancing the storyline. More so, the story is all about the two double police agents, Colin and Billy, assigned to infiltrate the enemy camp of the other, which creates captivating actions. It is right to state that the story is classical regardless the fact that it is recent production. The plot is full of linear chronology, with limited or no flashbacks, because each action and plot precedes continuously in a forward motion (Sickels, 2011). Complete closure is evident at the ending of the story: the police kills all the â€Å"bad†agents without leaving a single of them. Consequently, Billy receives a respectful burial, memorable speech and several gunshots. Nevertheless, it is easy to categorize the characters into stereotypes. The three main characters featuring in the movie function symbolically in terms of the Superego, Ego and Id, while taking note that the ego behavior structure itself is self-permeable and fluid. Francis Costello, the key antagonist pretends to be the mafia â€Å"boss.†He acts in all unethical behaviors starting from trading illegal and illicit properties while at the same time teaching unethical behavior of the mafia members (Schoeffmann, et al., 2011). For instance, a statement in the story states his teaching to a young boy from the neighboring village, â€Å"You have to take what you want in life.†Costello is a perfect example of pure Id because he enacts his urges and primal drives without much remorse, reflection or restraint (Sickels, 2011). At the beginning of the story, it is evident of him stating â€Å"I never wanted to be a product of my environment. I want my environment to be a product of me.†The audience soon grabs the idea of the naughty guys and the good guys, as well as, the crooked cop after watching the movie (Monaco, 2010). The objectives of the key character come out clearly in the movie: Colin has t he desire of getting successful and rich; he desires to stay as close as possible to the authority seat, which is evident in the way he fascinates with the â€Å"State House.†For instance, the story shows an incidence when he gazes at the seat for some time, after the greatest football game (Wernblad, 2010).. Consequently, a colleague,
Monday, September 23, 2019
Risk in the Essex Voyage Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
Risk in the Essex Voyage - Case Study Example According to the discussion the crew decided to continue for five weeks without stopping to do repairs and searched for warm waters. The encountered other whalers who told them about a newly discovered a good hunting ground located about four thousand six hundred kilometers to the southwest. The area was risky because it was too far and the inhabitants of the Islands were said to be cannibals. They went thousands into the coast of South America and but a number of days whaleboats were empty despite the whale damaging their boat by surfacing directly below. Three whaleboats began to pursue a sperm whale but as they tried to harpoon it its fluke hit the boat and damaged its seam, which forced them to cut the line from the whale to put back the boat into the ship for repair. The second boat has also harpooned a whale that was pulling the way. As the work of repaired continued an abnormally larger whale was seen behaving strangely. It lay without any movement and its head was facing the ship and it began to speedily approach the ship diving. The whale hit the ship with its head, went under it, and battered it tipping it to move from side to side. It continued to the starboard side of the ship and lay motionless but the crew could not kill it because it was too close to the rudder and could cause the ship intense damage. The whale was seen swimming ahead of the ship but came back in furry and speed and thrashed it with its tail and its head struck the ship again. This study outlines that the whale crushed the bow and pushed the ship backwards and the whale them swarm away and were never seen again. The ship began to sink slowly and the crew had only whaleboats for survival. The captain gathered navigational instruments but he could do much and was terrified. The ship took two days to sink, during which the crew tried to salvage their supplies.
Sunday, September 22, 2019
The Rising population of Women in Prison Homes in America Essay Example for Free
The Rising population of Women in Prison Homes in America Essay Introduction            Incarceration rates in the American region have been rising over the past 20 years. It could not be denied that through the statistical reports, major issues in incarceration include the undeniably increasing rates of women who are incarcerated. Their cases mostly range from the most basic personal assaults towards the murder cases. Both the aggressiveness of women and the weakness of the said gender to defend themselves from the injustices of the human law have naturally placed them in such situations.            In this regard, women who are giving birth n prisons also increase at the same time. More likely, these inmates are involved in either crime-based intercourse within or outside prison homes that they are able to conceive their babies inside their prison cells. How are the said pregnant omen treated and how are their babies delivered and cared for later on? What programs have been established to support the growing number of women who are delivering their children in prison homes? Moreover, if there could be a way to reduce the numbers of women who are annually incarcerated within the America prison homes, what would it possibly be?            These questions shall be discussed within the paragraphs that follow. This study mainly addresses to the topic using several research informations and actual program reports that have already been implemented within the prison homes of America. Moreover, through the use of critical analysis of the situation, this research is aimed in being able to show the truth on women behind bars and how they are treated as they bear their babies. Women in Prison Homes            According to the Chicago Legal Advocacy for Incarcerated Mothers, the growing rate of mothers or women who are incarcerated since the year 1994 have been increasingly disturbing. The reports of the said Legal Advocacy are to be listed as follows:            The number of women in Illinois state prisons at year-end 2002 was 2,520 – a 173% increase in ten years. As of yearend 2002, the number of incarcerated women nationwide was 97,491. Arrests of women for murder and manslaughter decreased 35.5% in that time. ï ¿ ½ Nationwide the percentage of women has more than doubled as a proportion of the population under correctional supervision, from 4% to 9%. About 15,000 women are detained in Cook County Jail annually and about 1,200 women are in the jail on any given day. 82 percent of all women detained at Cook County Jail in October 2001 were charged with non-violent offenses. More than 61% of women prisoners in Illinois serve sentences for property (32%) and drug (29%) offenses. Women’s crime has not become more violent, but sentencing has become harsher. ï ¿ ½ Like poverty, imprisonment disproportionately affects women of color. In 2002, 72% of women in pre-trial detention in Cook County were African-American, 7.5% were Latina, 11% were white, and 9% were multi-racial or other. Between 1990 and 2001 women admitted to Illinois prisons were 67.3% African-American, 26.9% white, and 5.1% Latina, with Asians and American Indians making up the other less than 1%. Nationally, black women were more than eight times as likely as white women to be in prison in 1997. ï ¿ ½ Both childhood and adult histories of abuse are strongly correlated with drug use among women. A 1994 study reported that 80% of women prisoners had experienced physical and sexual abuse, often beginning in childhood. ï ¿ ½ The Illinois Department of Corrections estimates that 80% of women prisoners need drug treatment, but it is available to only 20% of them. ï ¿ ½ In Illinois, more than 60% of women entering prison have not attained a high school diploma. ï ¿ ½ Rates of HIV infection are much higher in the prison population than in the general population. At year-end 2000, 3.6% of female state prison inmates were HIV-positive, compared to 2.2% of males. Prisoners in Illinois are paid as little as $15 per month for prison assignments but they must pay $2 for each doctor visit in prison. ï ¿ ½ Prisons are generally male-oriented and male-dominated. While there is a lack of programs and services for prisoners overall, the shortage for women is more stark. (Source: CHICAGO LEGAL ADVOCACY FOR INCARCERATED MOTHERS. 312.675.09111. 2003. http://womenandprison.org/claim-factsheet.pdf).            It is also according to this fact sheet that the incarceration of mothers have a great effect on the society and the development of their children outside their guidance. The result of such situations are indeed degrading to the society. The report further adds the fact sheet on the further result of the incarcerated mothers towards the families and the children that they left behind. The said reports are as follows: ï ¿ ½ 82.5% of women incarcerated in Illinois are mothers. In fiscal year 2000, approximately 2,800 women entering state prison reported that they had given birth to 7,500 children. Nationwide, women under correctional supervision are mothers of an estimated 1.3 million minor children. More than 10 million children have had a parent imprisoned at some point in their lives. Many mothers were their children’s sole caretakers before arrest. ï ¿ ½ Nearly 90% of fathers in prison in the U.S. report that their children live with the mothers; 28% of incarcerated mothers report that their children are being cared for by the fathers. ï ¿ ½ In 2003, 63 babies were born to mothers in the custody of Dwight Correctional Center. Nationwide, about 5% of women are pregnant when they enter prison. Another 15% have babies less than six weeks old. Newborns are separated from imprisoned mothers within a day or two of birth, missing the crucial, irretrievable period of mother-child bonding, which affects development for the rest of their lives. ï ¿ ½ Studies demonstrate that regular visits between children in foster care and their mothers enhance the children’s emotional, scholastic, and social adjustment to placement. Numerous studies show that family contact has a strong, positive impact on parole success when the mother is released. Â ï ¿ ½ When a mother goes to prison, it is her children who suffer most. Studies link parental incarceration with problems including poor school performance, aggression, emotional problems, and post-traumatic stress. Young children may be severely traumatized by the sudden separation from their mothers, resulting in developmental delays and later emotional problems. Children commonly experience sadness, anger, confusion, grief or apathy due to the separation. Children’s substitute caregivers often are stretched beyond their resources. Visits to distant prisons and long-distance, collect calls are the only available contact for children who are too young to benefit from letters. ï ¿ ½ 84% of mothers in federal prisons and 64% of mothers in state prisons lived with their children before arrest. When they are released, they face multiple barriers to reuniting their families, reintegrating into their communities, and obtaining stable employment and housing. ï ¿ ½ A 1985 study found that less than 1% of mothers in a California prison were sentenced for child abuse. ï ¿ ½ Children of imprisoned mothers who go into state foster homes may be separated from brothers and sisters, moved to a series of foster homes, and denied visits with their mothers. Foster care workers often fail to provide mandated visits and services. There is little coordination or continuity of services when the mother returns to the community. An estimated one in four children in the Illinois foster care system are abused in their foster homes. Foster children have an increased risk of delinquency in adolescence and homelessness in adulthood. ï ¿ ½ Maternal imprisonment affects future generations: children’s psychological health and sense of family is severely damaged by the separation from their mothers. Increasingly, families are destroyed forever through termination of parental rights, permanently cutting off the mother-child bond even if nobody adopts the children. Illinois in particular has targeted prisoners for destruction of their families through legal severance of family ties, so that the children and mothers have no further communication, visits, or even information about each others’ welfare.            Certainly, mothers who are placed behind bars and are having less time with their families have a great impact on the people that they left behind. As the actual reports show, at times, even visiting the said women inmates are prohibited. All these have a great impact on the fact that the women are less able to communicate with their children, hence having less guidance on their young ones. Although these women were imprisoned for some criminal reason maybe, it does not mean that they are no longer capable of taking care of their child or giving them the needed guidance that they have to gain form their mothers as they grow. As reports attest to the fact that children who are separated from their mothers at an early stage usually grow up to becoming delinquent citizens of the society [in case they fall on the wrong hands of guardians, which usually happens when the mother is in prison].            However, because of the environment of the American prison homes [usually worldwide reports on these cases are even at a graver situation], the officers and the prison policy for such situation would be focused on the environmental development of the child. Living with people who are bound behind bars because of incurring some crimes may not be that good of a developmental environment for young children. Hence, there is no choice but to separate the child from the mother and have them taken care of by other relatives or by foster parents. What has the government and other non-government organizations done to deal with this situation? The Programs Designed for Mother and Child in Prison Homes            At present, the increasing numbers of pregnant women who deliver their babies within the prison territories have already been called out to the ears of the authorities concerned in the issue. Certainly, there were programs that have been constructed by several concerned groups and the government itself to help these women and their children get over the separation and the grave situation that they are compromised to deal with.            These programs were gradually developed since it has been observed that children who are separated from their mothers at an early stage develop several mental and physical illness (Bender, 2004). To be able to avoid the said occurrences among children, the introduction of the â€Å"Tamar’s Children†project has been established in 2001. This project is mainly focused on rehabilitating the nurturing mother, especially if they have been taking drugs or have been related to any substance abuse cases, to be able to help them take care of their children at a certain time that the prison allows, as the baby needs them for support during the infancy stage.            The program has been proposed to begin at the delivery stage of the baby. The American Psychiatric Association believes that the mothers, though they are considered criminals under the human law, should be treated with respect and dignity when they are delivering their babies inside the prison homes. According to Eva Bender, the program set up would support the mother as she delivers her child to help her develop love for her young as the infant goes out f her womb (2004). Later on, as the mother and child bonding is pursued, the mothers are placed in correctional communities where they are able to connect with their children freely and are treated well by authorities. This is to reduce the traumatic experiences of the mothers being passed on to their children as they tend to them in their infancy.            As it could be observed, the project proposition is manly focused on the mental development of the child. Along with it comes the rehabilitation of the mother for the sake of the young ones. As the group believes that â€Å"Anytime you have women who are incarcerated, there is stigma,Gillece continued. Add that they have prostituted themselves,are pregnant, and addicted to heroin. These are not populargirls. Anywhere†¦The birthing experience is a new one for many of the womenâ€â€including those who are not first-time mothers, she noted. Many of the women had been using drugs when they had their other babies and hadn’t delivered without being high beforeâ€â€it is a whole new experience, (Bender, 2004).            Yes, the assistance of the authorities to many of the new mothers inside the prison homes would help well not only on the rehabilitation of the mother but also on the development of the child as it grows up away from its mother’s care. The Effects of Pregnancy and Delivering Babies to Women            It could be noted that through the implementation of the projected programs for pregnant and delivering women inside the prison homes affect the personality of the women inmates. Most of the women who were able to deliver their babies gain maturity and a sense of responsibility which in turn making them capable of being rehabilitated from their old selves when they were first incarcerate in the prison homes. It could be noted too that based on reports, the rate of women who are returning to prison homes because of repeated crimes are lessened on the part of the ‘already mothers’ when they finished their prison sentences.            Certainly, this could mean that one of the ways which could be used to lessen the number of the women inmates is to teach them some responsibility that would help them grow in maturity and thus they would not commit the same crimes again as they go out of the prison territories. As a result, this could be considered as a way by which the rates of women incarceration could be reduced as well. Conclusion            The fact of having young women or pregnant inmates has naturally brought fourth issues that are directly connected on mother and child development. The said issue raises more questions regarding the situation on individual development of both separate people, the mother and the young infant. As a result, the programs created to directly assist both sides of the situation have been proposed to have effective and practical effects on the personality of both separate people. Yes, these programs have been proven to support two separate aims of rehabilitating the mother and thus lowering the rate or returning inmates and the rate of women who are hosted by prison homes, also it helps in creating a better environment for the infant as it develops. BIBLIOGRAPHY Publications: Home Office (1997) Mothers in Prison, Diane Caddle and Debbie Crisp, Research Findings No. 38, Home Office Research and Statistics Directorate. Report of a Review of Principles, Policies and Procedures on Mothers and Babies/Children in Prison – Response and Action Plan December 1999 Home Office, (1997) Imprisoned Women and Mothers , Diane Caddle and Debbie Crisp, Research Study 162, A Research and Statistics Directorate Report Home Office (1998) Age Limits for Babies in Prison: Some Lessons from Abroad, D Caddle, Research Findings No. 80, Home Office Research Development and Statistics Directorate. Home Office (1997) Mothers in Prison, Diane Caddle and Debbie Crisp, Research Findings No. 38, Home Office Research and Statistics Directorate. Richards, M. et al. (1996) Imprisonment and family ties. Home Office Research and Statistics Bulletin No. 38: HMSO Howard League (1995) Prison Mother and Baby Units, Howard League. Howard League (1997) Pregnant and in Prison, Howard League. Howard League (1999) Babies behind Bars, Frances Crook, HLM, February 1999, Volume 17, No.1, Howard League. Richards, M. et al. (1995) Foreign nationals in English prisons: 1. Family ties and their maintenance. The Howard Journal Vol 34 No 2 May 1995. Blumstein, A. and Wallman, J., eds., The Crime Drop in America. Cambridge Press, 2000. Schiraldi, V., Ziedenberg, J., The Punishing Decade: Prison and Jail Estimates at the Millennium. Justice Policy Institute, 1999. Illinois Department of Corrections (hereinafter IDOC), 2002 Statistical Presentation. State of Illinois. July 31, 2003. IDOC Office of Planning and Research. February 2003 Harrison, Paige and Beck, Allen, Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin Prisoners in 2002. NCJ 200248. July 2003 Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States 2002. Section IV: Persons Arrested. 2002. Bureau of Justice Statistics Correctional Surveys (The National Probation Data Survey, National Prisoner Statistics, Survey of Jails, and The National Parole Data Survey) as presented in Correctional Populations in the United States. BJS. November 28, 2000. Chicago Coalition for the Homeless, Unlocking Options for Women. April 2002. LaLonde, Robert J. and George, Susan M., Incarcerated Mothers: The Chicago Project on Female Prisoners and Their Children. The Irving B. Harris Graduate School of Public Policy Studies, University of Chicago. June 2002 Human Rights Watch, Punishment and Prejudice: Racial Disparities in the War on Drugs. Vol. 12, No. 2 (G). May 2000. McClellan, D., Farabee, D. and Crouch, B., â€Å"Early Victimization, Drug Use, and Criminality†in Criminal Justice and Behavior. 1997. Bloom, B. and Covington, S., Gender-Specific Programming for Female Offenders: What is It and Why Is It Important? American Society of Criminology, November 1998. Maruschak, Laura M., HIV in Prisons, 2000. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, NCJ 196023. October 2002. Internet Sources: CHICAGO LEGAL ADVOCACY FOR INCARCERATED MOTHERS. 312.675.09111. 2003. http://womenandprison.org/claim-factsheet.pdf. (February 21, 2007). Eva Bender. (2004). Prison Program Fosters Bonding Between Women, Newborns. http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/39/5/30?etoc. (February 21, 2007).
Saturday, September 21, 2019
Laws of Concentration and Centralization: A Modern Review
Laws of Concentration and Centralization: A Modern Review Sourish Dutta Abstract Though the basic (late 1860s) Marxian model, under capitalist mode of production, assumes (more or less) perfectly competitive markets with a large number of small firms in each industry, Marx was cognizant of the growing size of firms, the consequent weakening of competition, and the growth of monopolistic power. Hence, capital has the inclination for concentration and centralization in the hands of richest capitalists. Actually, the concentration and centralization of capital are two capital accumulation techniques. Such concentration and centralization of capital can be clearly detected at this modern timeâ€â€especially in the USAâ€â€in the massive occurrences of the mergers, acquisitions and conglomerates. In this assignment, henceforth, I will be trying to cultivate an analytical discussion about these two interlinked concepts and their implications and repercussions in this modern world of capitalism. Prologue The contemporary financial catastrophe of 2008 brings back the Marxian laws of concentration and centralization of capital in the modern form. They are often confused but must be clearly distinguished. Marx explained it most famously in chapter 25 of volume 1 of Capital. Though his dynamic intellectual exploration engrossed in the industrial capital, the same tendency holds with respect to financial capital in present scenario. With the increasing mass of wealth which functions as capital, accumulation increases the concentration of that wealth in the hands of individual capitalists, and thereby widens the basis of production on a large scale and of the specific methods of capitalist production†¦ It is concentration of capitals already formed, destruction of their individual independence, expropriation of capitalist by capitalist, transformation of many small into few large capitals. This process differs from the former in this, that it only presupposes a change in the distribution of capital already to hand, and functioning†¦ Capital grows in one place to a huge mass in a single hand, because it has in another place been lost by many. This is centralisation proper, as distinct from accumulation and concentration. In brief, by concentration we make out the upsurge of capital that is due to the capitalisation of the surplus value originated through accumulation of surplus value of labour. Indeed, increasing concentration of capital occurs as individual capitalists accumulate more and more capital, thereby increasing the absolute amount of capital under their control. The size of the firm or economic unit of production is increased correspondingly, and the degree of competition in the market tends to be diminished; under centralisation we understand the joining together of various individual capital units which thus form a new larger unit. Actually, more important reason for the reduction of competition is the centralization of capital. Centralization occurs through a redistribution of already existing capital in a manner that places its ownership and control in fewer and fewer hands. Marx maintained that larger firms would be able to achieve economies of scale and thus produce at lower average costs than would smaller firms. However, concentration and centralisation, influence one another. A great concentration of capital accelerates the absorption of small-scale enterprises by large-scale ones; conversely, centralisation aids the increase of individual capital units and so accelerates the process of concentration[1],[2]. Beside this, recent experience of financial crisis also conveys a new phenomenal dimension in the context of Marxian crisis in capitalist mode of production. This phenomenon gives rise to the doctrine of Too Big to Fail (TBTF)[3]. Rationale behind these laws The main logic behind these two laws of capitalism is the force of capital accumulation or the self-expansion of capital. Here we have to note two distinct concepts, namely, individual capital and social capital. Marx observes: The fact that the social capital is equal to the sum of the individual capitals (including the joint-stock capital or the state capital, so far as governments employ productive wage-labour in mines, railways etc., perform the function of industrial capitalists), and that the aggregate movement of social capital is equal to the algebraic sum of the movements of the individual capitals, does not in any way preclude the possibility that this movement as the movement of a single individual capital, may present other phenomena than the same movement does when considered from the point of view of a part of the aggregate movement of social capital, hence in its interconnection with the movements of its other parts. †¦Every individual capital forms, however, but an individualised fraction, a fraction endowed with individual life, as it were, of the aggregate social capital, just as every individual capitalist is but an individual element of the capitalist class. The movement of the soci al capital consists of the totality of the movements of its individualised fractional parts, the turnovers of the individual capitals. The self-expansion of individual capital is accomplished through the appropriation of surplus value by maximizing the rate of profit, while the movement of the social capital leads to the equalisation of rates of profit. Individual capital is a thing as well as a relation, and so is the social capital; moreover, the social capital denotes another dimension of social relation, namely, the relation between industrial, financial and commercial branches, and also between branches, sectors and departments of the productive system. Nevertheless, it is also to be noted that in a capitalist economy, state capital is an integral part of social capital. In juridical form, state capital is indeed different from private joint-stock capital, but its movements determine, and are determined by, the movements of social capital. Concentration The other name of self-expansion of individual capital is concentration of capital, according to Marx. It has nothing to do with the statistical concept of concentration ratio on the pattern of Gini, Lorenz or Atkinson. The concentration of capital in the Marxian sense is measured in absolute terms with reference to a single individual capital, without regard to the rest of the individual capitals; in other words, it is not a ratio of any two magnitudes. At one place Marx says that simple concentration of the means of production and of the command over labour is identical with accumulation, and at another he equates the rate of self-expansion of the total capital with the rate of profit. Every individual capital is a larger or smaller concentration of the means of production, with a corresponding command over a larger or smaller labour-army, says Marx. Every accumulation becomes the means of new accumulation. Clearly, by concentration Marx does not mean anything like the Gini coefficient or the Lorenz ratio. Now, accumulation is the prime mover of capitalism, and concentration increases with accumulation. Since the rate of profit is uniform throughout the economy, should every capitalist accumulate the entire profits (or equal pro- portion of profit) then each individual capital would grow at the same rate. In that event, there would be a continuous rise in the concentration of capital in the Marxian sense, but not so in the usual statistical sense. To put it differently, a constancy in the statistical concentration ratio does not imply a cessation of the Marxian concentration of capital. Movements of social capital tend to bring about equalisation of profit rate throughout the economy, but in fact profit rates do vary from one branch of production to another at any given period. Besides, as we know, one portion (of the surplus value) if employed as capital, is accumulated 13 and the portion of this plough-back may not be the same for every individual capita- list. A bigger capitalist accumulates a larger percentage of the surplus value appropriated by him. Hence, the rates of self- expansion of various individual capitals-that is to say, their rates of concentration-differ. If the bigger capital effects a higher rate of self-expansion, then the statistical concentration ratio would rise with the Marxian concentration of capital. With the rising concentration of capital a qualitative change takes place-the organic composition of capital goes up, and hence the rate of profit declines bringing in its trail a crisis which we shall take up for discussion below. [1] http://www.economictheories.org/2008/07/karl-marx-concentration-and.html [2]N.I. Bukharin: Imperialism and World Economy [3] According to some economists, when banks and finance corporations become too big, their failure has systemic implications, inflicting collateral damage on individuals who may have nothing directly to do with those banks or corporations. Governments then feel compelled to rescue these large entities in order to minimize the collateral damage, and the anticipation of such bailout promotes reckless behaviour.
Friday, September 20, 2019
Creutzfeldt Jakob Disease: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment
Creutzfeldt Jakob Disease: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment One of the diseases that has severely impacted the lives of people these days is Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) which is a condition that is fatal and rare which has impact on the brain of human being. CJD causes damage to the brain that gets worsened with the passage of time. The patients diagnosed with the disease die within one year as people become immobile (Solassol et al., 2006). CJD is usually caused by an abnormal protein known as prion. Before prion is understood, proteins function for body must be clarified. For every human being, proteins are important for life and are present in body of all living things. Every part of humans body has good composition of protein such as muscles, hair, fingernails, bones, skin, blood, body organs and eyes. After water, protein is the second most important constituent of body (Belay et al., 2003). According to LiveScience Staff (2012), protein is mainly used for building, maintenance and repairing of body tissues; it is present in various forms which perform many jobs in human body and the structure of each protein determine its function. The building blocks of proteins are long strings of amino acids which get folded and curled into complex three dimensional shapes which allow proteins to perform their job. Dr. Stanley B. Prusiner from University of California i.e. San Francisco purified an agent which was infectious made of unique kind of protein and referred to it as prion in 1982; Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to him in 1997 for discovery of Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) that was mainly caused by prions. Prions get accumulated in brain at much higher levels that cause permanent damage to the nerve cells which cause various neurological symptoms. These infectious particles are different in behavior from conventional bacteria and viruses which cannot be destroyed by exposing to heat and radiation. Even antiviral and antibacterial medicines have no effects on prions; hence, presently, there is lack of valuable treatment for CJD (Belay et al., 2003). Understanding Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) Basically, CJD is a very rare form of deadly form of dementia which can spread fastly in the body from brain. Prions are mostly found in brain and are harmless; when they are not given proper shapes, they may have effects that can be devastating which can even attack brain, kill its cells and create holes or gaps in tissue of brain (Ironside, 2009). Prion diseases have been found in both animals and humans; such diseases were in news of mid 1980s along with Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) epidemic which was referred to as Mad Cow disease, it is a cattle disease. In humans, it is known as CJD. The disease is found in about one to two people among million people worldwide. Types of CJD There are basically two types of CJD i.e. Classic CJD and Variant CJD (vCJD). The three types of classic CJD are Sporadic CJD, Familial or genetic CJD and Iatrogenic or Acquired CJD. Sporadic CJD More than 90% of people diagnosed with CJD are suffering from this type of CJD and it is mainly found in people aged in between 45 to 75. There are no specific symptoms for this CJD (Shah et al., 2009); however, some early symptoms such as depression may be present but it can quickly progress into confusion and problems of memory which is commonly observed in dementia, followed by loss of balance and coordination along with progressive blindness (Piouti et al., 2012). Familial or genetic CJD Familial or genetic CJD is one of the rare genetic condition in which the persons genes are inherited from one parent who causes the protein to get mutated into a prion in later stages of life that trigger the symptoms of CJD. In other words, it appears in families that have abnormal gene. About 7% of cases have this type of CJD. In order to diagnose it, blood test is done; person having this abnormal gene has 50% chance of transmitting it to children. The other rare form of this CJD are Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI) and Gerstmann-Strà ¤ussler-Scheinker (GSS); both of these are rarely found in people (Brand et al., 2006). It occurs in people who have age of 50 years. Iatrogenic or Acquired CJD This type of CJD is rarely found in people as it is found in those people who get CJD while accidental transmission that takes place during a medical procedure like corneal grafts, instruments in neurosurgery, human pituitary hormone therapy or human dura-mater grafts (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2010). Variant CJD People having average age of 28 years are found to be suffering from Variant CJD. It is usually developed from eating of beef that was infected with BSE. It can even occur with blood transfusion in which variant CJD is transmitted from one person to other. Once the symptoms are identified, the disease spreads quickly in the body (Tattum et al., 2010). Signs and Symptoms of CJD In many of the cases, classic CJD looks similar to various other dementias; the disease comes on fastly and then declines the ability of thinking as symptoms start appearing. Some of the most commonly found symptoms are that the person may have swings in mood, problems related to memory, interest absence and not behaving like oneself, having difficulty while walking such as keeping balance, dementia rapid progressions such as loss of memory and other thinking capabilities, problems in vision such as blindness, stiffening of limbs, twitching or jerks in muscles, feeling of clumsiness, speaking problem such as slurred speech, difficulty in swallowing and akinetic mutism in which person can move eyes and appear to be alert but can neither move voluntarily or speak (Espinosa, Bensalem-Owen, Fee, 2010; Sikorska et al., 2004). However, people who are in CJDs later stages face problems such as losing awareness as it can be seen in various neurological examinations. While the disease in the early stages, CJD patients are scared and it can be a distressing situation for them; it is usually associated with hallucinations that are visual which means seeing things that are not present there which might develop uncomfortable feeling in them (Andrews, 2012). People who are suffering from sporadic CJD usually live than twelve months after the appearance of signs and symptoms; the maximum life is two years. Before death, some people fall into condition of coma; the main reasons of death are heart failure, pneumonia or respiratory failure such as breathing problem (Rossetti Dunand, 2007). Among the most common symptoms found in Variant CJD people are changes in behavior, depression, withdrawal from social gatherings, difficulty in walking, dementia that is progressive, unable to do movement or speak and pain and odd kind of sensation in limbs or face (LiveScience Staff, 2012). Causes of CJD According to studies of Ironside (2009) and Tattum et al. (2010), CJD is caused by slow virus or other small organisms. The agent that causes this disease has several characteristics which are different from viruses and bacterias. The organisms are difficult to kill as they dont have genetic information on them in the form Nucleic acids such as DNA or RNA and has long period of incubation before symptoms are made visible. However, it has been found that it is mostly caused by prion proteins that can occur in both normal and infectious form. The normal forms have same shapes as that of amino acids but infectious ones differ in their shapes from normal proteins. Once they appear, abnormal ones start to get aggregated which start affecting the brain. Only 5-10% cases are inherited ones that arise either from mutation or changes in gene which are responsible for controlling the formation of normal prion proteins. Diagnosis of CJD CJD is difficult to diagnose especially when it is in its initial stages; there is no specific test available for diagnosing in living person. Only way to make sure that person had CJD is by examining the tissue of brain after his death. However, there are some other tests and procedures can be used for diagnosis of the disease such as medical history examination as it will help doctors in learning the persons symptoms and signs when they get started as CJD gets spread quickly; Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in which brains picture is taken to identify the difference between various types of CJD; Computerized Tomography (CT) scan in which brains picture will be taken to diagnose the disease; Puncture of Lumbar which means taking fluid form the spine of a person by using syringe and a needle, it is done to identify the infections of brain; blood tests to identify if there is any chance of genetic CJD; Electroencephalogram (ECG) in which electrical activity of brain is measured and b rain autopsy in which tissue of brain is examined after persons death (Puoti et al., 2012; Shah et al., 2009). Treatment for CJD Up till now, there has been no success in developing right treatment for CJD. The researchers have done numerous tests with many drugs such as steroids, antiviral agents, antibiotics, amantadine, acyclovir and many more but they have not been able to find perfect cure for this disease (Puoti et al., 2012). Some studies are still in progression to develop appropriate treatment for patients but none of them have been successful in benefiting the human beings. The treatment for CJD that is being followed by various doctors is aimed at alleviation of symptoms and trying to make the individuals as comfortable as the experts can do so that they have the will power of fighting against the disease. Some of the opiate drugs can relieve pain when people suffer from it but the drugs such as Sodium Valproate and Clonzaepam definitely help in relieving of myoclonus. When the disease is in later stages, position of person is changed frequently so that he gets comfortable and bedsores can be prevented. For draining urine, a catheter can be used as it helps in controlling the function of bladder and artificial feeding can also be used. Precautions for CJD Although there are chances that CJD gets transmitted by being careless during medical procedures but still people need to take care of various things that can help them in remain protected from this disease. CJD is not a contagious disease that can be transmitted either by social or sexual contact or via air or feeding, touching or even taking care of person suffering from CJD at home. some of the basic precautionary measures that need to be followed are washing hands either before eating or drinking, covering wounds or cuts with bandages that are waterproof, protecting face and hands from being exposes to blood or fluids of body of person who is affected by this disease and taking special care in blood transfusions so that CJD infected person does not give his blood. In order to avoid variant CJD, beef from selected countries should be eaten; countries that have high risk of TSE are more vulnerable to risk. The only options available for avoiding this type of CJD are either to eat beef from countries that emphasize on strict regulations on its quality and avoid eating parts of cattle that have high risks such as spinal cord, intestines, brain and eyes. Conclusion Creutzfeldt Jakob disease (CJD) is among the fastest growing disease that is being faced by many people worldwide. It has become important for researchers to identify right course of treatment for this disease so that patients can get full recovery. In order to make sure that people who have genetic CJD are given appropriate treatment before symptoms start to become visible, it is important that people get their blood tests done at regular intervals. When any of the signs and symptoms is observed in people, it is advised that they contact a doctor immediately who can ensure that right tests are done for identification of this disease. Still, the researchers have to do extensive work for identifying the main causes of CJD along with developing a remedial solution. Among all the available options, the best one is to contact any well-known doctors who are specialist in neurology who will take the patient in right treatment method. Hence, everyone needs to make sure that they have complete information about this disease so that they can face it with determination and strong will power. Palliative Care for Cancer Patients | Literature Review Palliative Care for Cancer Patients | Literature Review Gretha Cabral Literature Review Cancer has become a global concern in the recent decades and various researches have raised the need for palliative care for cancer patients besides the treatment that they receive from their respective hospitals. Researches show that palliative care prolongs the life of patients more as compared on relying the treatments alone. According to research conducted by Julia Medew, patients who are suffering from lung cancer could enjoy longer, quality life and low depression where they bestowed palliative care immediately after they are diagnosed with lung cancer, as opposed to starting at the late stages of the disease. According to this study, Medew aimed that; the findings would change the views of both the patients and the doctors on the quality of palliative care (Medew, 2011). The care aims at improving the quality of life of the for patients with progressive, serious illnesses through paying high attention to the control of their symptoms and pain, recognizing their spiritual and p sychological needs and providing the necessary support to the patients and their families. Medew`s study divided 151 patients with lung cancer into two groups in order to clearly outline the quality of palliative care (Medew, 2011). The first group of lung cancer patients was to solely rely on the standard treatment that the patients would receive from the health facilities while the second group was to receive the same treatment that would be accompanied by immediate referral to palliative care within a time range of twelve weeks after diagnose. Consequently, the findings showed that, the average survival period of patients in the second group was around three months longer and those patients reported living a high quality life and far much better moods as compared to the first group. Moreover, this American study was seconded by Ian Haines, who was a Melbourne cancer specialist who recommended that, palliative care should be administered by doctors to cancer patients. This suggestion was made because most health professionals, cancer patients and many other individuals realized that palliative care can serve as the only default measure of managing cancer when all other measures have been exhausted. He also suggested that, if early referral of cancer patients to professional palliative care can be an expensive measure, the governments should subsidize by increasing the allocation of more funds to the ministry of health since its value outweighs the costs that may be associated with it (Medew, 2011). Professor Haines also gave another case study that recently followed 333 cancer patients up to their death. The study also divided the patients into groups where one involved patients who were hospitalized to receive cancer treatments while the other group was treated and discharged in order to receive additional palliative care at their respective homes. The study findings showed that, patients in the first group died within a short time interval than those in the second group. In addition, those patients in the first group also experienced emotional and physical distress than those patients in the second group who died while receiving palliative care at their homes. The study concluded that, faster occurrence of deaths in patients who are admitted in health facilities was highly contributed by high extents of grief and more post-traumatic stress that arose from the family members and friends of those patients (Medew, 2011). His study also established that early referral of patients to palliative care helps caregivers and patients to understand their treatment options better especially at the end of their life. Furthermore, this early referral helps to reduce debilitating expensive treatments such as chemotherapy and excessive utilization of limited medical resources. In addition, most cancer patients are not used to palliative care in most countries and this unfamiliarity calls for the need for providing information to patients, their family members and friends sensitizing to them the quality of palliative care. According to research conducted by Ms. Etheredge, one of the officials of hospice palliative care society, she found that, palliative care frightens most individuals including cancer patients since most people are used to the tradition of patients being admitted to hospitals for treatment. Therefore, discharging cancer patients after treating them and then requiring them to seek palliative care at their respective homes elevate stress to patients since the latter concludes that they are being sent to meet their deaths at home. She suggested that, the governments should construct a cancer hospice in a strategic point since according to her, the environment where palliative care is provided matters most (Furse, 1999). She further suggested that, any other hospice to be constructed near to water and bus route since these are the two primary necessities that assist the caregivers and the families. Moreover, she also seconded the decision of the health minister of Australia in launching the national palliative care awareness week that would inform people about the equity and access of this care (Brigid, 2011). During the launching of this palliative care awareness campaign, the health minister also outlined the palliative strategic plan to inform the services that palliative care offers. In addition, brochures printed in Greek, Chinese, Vietnamese, Italian and polishes were distributed to different people during that week outlining palliative care services. This distribution of brochures was to enhance the reach of palliative care information to more people especially those who both don’t speak English and are not aware of the services provided by palliative care. In addition, according to Mark Colvin, most of the cancer patients in Australia are not aware of the existence, quality and the services that are provided by palliative care centers because most doctors do not sensitize and refer these patients to palliative services. According to study that surveyed a sample of one thousand doctors all over the country and within the duration of one year, more than eight hundred doctors do not refer cancer patients to palliative care. Merrilyn stone, for example, was not referred to palliative care when she was initially diagnosed with breast cancer in 1990 (Barrett, 2004). This lack of referent made her to still firm her believe that palliative care is intended for the dying people and this made it harder for her to understand the value of palliative care when her condition came back eleven years later. Moreover, according to Afaf Girgis, this lack of referring patients to palliative care during the early stages of cancer development enhances the perception of the community and the patients that palliative care is intended for individuals who are at the death`s door and this is much untrue. Girgis further outlines this lack of referring cancer patients to palliative care predisposes the patient to more and severe consequences when the disease progresses to its advanced stages. In the long run, the particular patients live less additional days, as opposed to when they would have been early referred to palliative care services (Barrett, 2004). However, according to Rebecca Barrett, the study found that, very few health professionals who used to refer their patients to palliative care. In addition, in case these health professionals happen to refer cancer patients to palliative care, the latter was mostly intended to control pain but not for emotional or psychological support or legal and financial support. Consecutively, according to Dr. Sundquist, most health professionals concentrate more on curing the cancer patients and most are unaware of the quality of palliative care. He further challenges this doctors` works and suggests that, the latter needs to understand more is needed to cancer patients besides treatment services (Barrett, 2004). Moreover, cancer patients need additional services that include practical and emotional support that involves palliative care. Moreover, in Australia, Whyalla hospital developed project of constructing Whyalla cancer treatment Centre that would cancer services almost at par with the same treatment services that were offered in Adelaide. Initially, many cancer patients were forced to travel long distances in order to access cancer services at Adelaide hospital (Bruce, 2012). The construction of Whyalla cancer Centre aimed at reducing the transportation burden of cancer patients to long distances. According to whale news, the cancer center would offer a wide range of palliative services to the cancer patients especially those who were recently diagnosed with cancer. According to the chairman of his cancer project Mr. champion, the cancer Centre would offer services such as creating space for training activities and research, counseling of cancer patients, chemotherapy, outpatient care services among others. Additionally, the Whyalla cancer Centre would operate in cooperation with the already established Adelai de health facility in order to share health professionals and other technical equipments. This cooperation statement was echoed by Mr. Champion who said â€Å"the specialists will determine if the complexity of the cancer requires the patient to receive treatment in Adelaide or if they can remain in Whyalla.†(Bruce, 2012) However, the recent researches show that most patients suffering from cancer would prefer to meet their deaths at their homes rather than at the health facilities. These researches recommend that health professionals should follow the wishes of cancer patients on where the latter wants to receive palliative care. In connection to this, Eurobodalla health services have provided ambulance protocols that would facilitate doctors to respond to the emergency calls from the homes of cancer patients (Oconnor, 2014). These services would enable cancer patients to receive palliative care at their homes as they wish. References Barrett, R. (2004). Cancer patients missing out on palliative care; palliative support. Sydney, Australian Broadcasting Corporation. ABC Premium News Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/458087832? Brigid, O. (2011). Palliative care boosted. Melbourne, News Digital Media. Vic.Sunday Herald Sun Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/867896592? Bruce, K. (2012). Good news for cancer patients. Whyalla, S. Aust, Fairfax Media Publications Pty Limited. Whyalla News Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1081480966? Furse, L. (1999). Strategy for better palliative care. Canberra, A.C.T, Fairfax Media Publications Pty Limited. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1012751431? Medew, J. (2011). Early palliative care could prolong life. Canberra, A.C.T, Fairfax Media Publications Pty Limited. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1020447587? Medew, J. (2011). Palliative care extends length and quality of life. Sydney, N.S.W., Fairfax Digital. Sydney Morning Herald Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/854392582? Oconnor, K. (2014). Treatment available closer to home for palliative patients. Batemans Bay, N.S.W, Fairfax Media Publications Pty Limited. Bay Post Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1516592167? Gretha Cabral s3483440
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