Laws of Concentration and Centralization: A Modern Review

Laws of Concentration and Centralization: A Modern Review Sourish Dutta Abstract Though the basic (late 1860s) Marxian model, under capitalist mode of production, assumes (more or less) perfectly competitive markets with a large number of small firms in each industry, Marx was cognizant of the growing size of firms, the consequent weakening of competition, and the growth of monopolistic power. Hence, capital has the inclination for concentration and centralization in the hands of richest capitalists. Actually, the concentration and centralization of capital are two capital accumulation techniques. Such concentration and centralization of capital can be clearly detected at this modern time—especially in the USA—in the massive occurrences of the mergers, acquisitions and conglomerates. In this assignment, henceforth, I will be trying to cultivate an analytical discussion about these two interlinked concepts and their implications and repercussions in this modern world of capitalism. Prologue The contemporary financial catastrophe of 2008 brings back the Marxian laws of concentration and centralization of capital in the modern form. They are often confused but must be clearly distinguished. Marx explained it most famously in chapter 25 of volume 1 of Capital. Though his dynamic intellectual exploration engrossed in the industrial capital, the same tendency holds with respect to financial capital in present scenario. With the increasing mass of wealth which functions as capital, accumulation increases the concentration of that wealth in the hands of individual capitalists, and thereby widens the basis of production on a large scale and of the specific methods of capitalist production†¦ It is concentration of capitals already formed, destruction of their individual independence, expropriation of capitalist by capitalist, transformation of many small into few large capitals. This process differs from the former in this, that it only presupposes a change in the distribution of capital already to hand, and functioning†¦ Capital grows in one place to a huge mass in a single hand, because it has in another place been lost by many. This is centralisation proper, as distinct from accumulation and concentration. In brief, by concentration we make out the upsurge of capital that is due to the capitalisation of the surplus value originated through accumulation of surplus value of labour. Indeed, increasing concentration of capital occurs as individual capitalists accumulate more and more capital, thereby increasing the absolute amount of capital under their control. The size of the firm or economic unit of production is increased correspondingly, and the degree of competition in the market tends to be diminished; under centralisation we understand the joining together of various individual capital units which thus form a new larger unit. Actually, more important reason for the reduction of competition is the centralization of capital. Centralization occurs through a redistribution of already existing capital in a manner that places its ownership and control in fewer and fewer hands. Marx maintained that larger firms would be able to achieve economies of scale and thus produce at lower average costs than would smaller firms. However, concentration and centralisation, influence one another. A great concentration of capital accelerates the absorption of small-scale enterprises by large-scale ones; conversely, centralisation aids the increase of individual capital units and so accelerates the process of concentration[1],[2]. Beside this, recent experience of financial crisis also conveys a new phenomenal dimension in the context of Marxian crisis in capitalist mode of production. This phenomenon gives rise to the doctrine of Too Big to Fail (TBTF)[3]. Rationale behind these laws The main logic behind these two laws of capitalism is the force of capital accumulation or the self-expansion of capital. Here we have to note two distinct concepts, namely, individual capital and social capital. Marx observes: The fact that the social capital is equal to the sum of the individual capitals (including the joint-stock capital or the state capital, so far as governments employ productive wage-labour in mines, railways etc., perform the function of industrial capitalists), and that the aggregate movement of social capital is equal to the algebraic sum of the movements of the individual capitals, does not in any way preclude the possibility that this movement as the movement of a single individual capital, may present other phenomena than the same movement does when considered from the point of view of a part of the aggregate movement of social capital, hence in its interconnection with the movements of its other parts. †¦Every individual capital forms, however, but an individualised fraction, a fraction endowed with individual life, as it were, of the aggregate social capital, just as every individual capitalist is but an individual element of the capitalist class. The movement of the soci al capital consists of the totality of the movements of its individualised fractional parts, the turnovers of the individual capitals. The self-expansion of individual capital is accomplished through the appropriation of surplus value by maximizing the rate of profit, while the movement of the social capital leads to the equalisation of rates of profit. Individual capital is a thing as well as a relation, and so is the social capital; moreover, the social capital denotes another dimension of social relation, namely, the relation between industrial, financial and commercial branches, and also between branches, sectors and departments of the productive system. Nevertheless, it is also to be noted that in a capitalist economy, state capital is an integral part of social capital. In juridical form, state capital is indeed different from private joint-stock capital, but its movements determine, and are determined by, the movements of social capital. Concentration The other name of self-expansion of individual capital is concentration of capital, according to Marx. It has nothing to do with the statistical concept of concentration ratio on the pattern of Gini, Lorenz or Atkinson. The concentration of capital in the Marxian sense is measured in absolute terms with reference to a single individual capital, without regard to the rest of the individual capitals; in other words, it is not a ratio of any two magnitudes. At one place Marx says that simple concentration of the means of production and of the command over labour is identical with accumulation, and at another he equates the rate of self-expansion of the total capital with the rate of profit. Every individual capital is a larger or smaller concentration of the means of production, with a corresponding command over a larger or smaller labour-army, says Marx. Every accumulation becomes the means of new accumulation. Clearly, by concentration Marx does not mean anything like the Gini coefficient or the Lorenz ratio. Now, accumulation is the prime mover of capitalism, and concentration increases with accumulation. Since the rate of profit is uniform throughout the economy, should every capitalist accumulate the entire profits (or equal pro- portion of profit) then each individual capital would grow at the same rate. In that event, there would be a continuous rise in the concentration of capital in the Marxian sense, but not so in the usual statistical sense. To put it differently, a constancy in the statistical concentration ratio does not imply a cessation of the Marxian concentration of capital. Movements of social capital tend to bring about equalisation of profit rate throughout the economy, but in fact profit rates do vary from one branch of production to another at any given period. Besides, as we know, one portion (of the surplus value) if employed as capital, is accumulated 13 and the portion of this plough-back may not be the same for every individual capita- list. A bigger capitalist accumulates a larger percentage of the surplus value appropriated by him. Hence, the rates of self- expansion of various individual capitals-that is to say, their rates of concentration-differ. If the bigger capital effects a higher rate of self-expansion, then the statistical concentration ratio would rise with the Marxian concentration of capital. With the rising concentration of capital a qualitative change takes place-the organic composition of capital goes up, and hence the rate of profit declines bringing in its trail a crisis which we shall take up for discussion below. [1] http://www.economictheories.org/2008/07/karl-marx-concentration-and.html [2]N.I. Bukharin: Imperialism and World Economy [3] According to some economists, when banks and finance corporations become too big, their failure has systemic implications, inflicting collateral damage on individuals who may have nothing directly to do with those banks or corporations. Governments then feel compelled to rescue these large entities in order to minimize the collateral damage, and the anticipation of such bailout promotes reckless behaviour.

Creutzfeldt Jakob Disease: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment

Creutzfeldt Jakob Disease: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment One of the diseases that has severely impacted the lives of people these days is Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) which is a condition that is fatal and rare which has impact on the brain of human being. CJD causes damage to the brain that gets worsened with the passage of time. The patients diagnosed with the disease die within one year as people become immobile (Solassol et al., 2006). CJD is usually caused by an abnormal protein known as prion. Before prion is understood, proteins function for body must be clarified. For every human being, proteins are important for life and are present in body of all living things. Every part of humans body has good composition of protein such as muscles, hair, fingernails, bones, skin, blood, body organs and eyes. After water, protein is the second most important constituent of body (Belay et al., 2003). According to LiveScience Staff (2012), protein is mainly used for building, maintenance and repairing of body tissues; it is present in various forms which perform many jobs in human body and the structure of each protein determine its function. The building blocks of proteins are long strings of amino acids which get folded and curled into complex three dimensional shapes which allow proteins to perform their job. Dr. Stanley B. Prusiner from University of California i.e. San Francisco purified an agent which was infectious made of unique kind of protein and referred to it as prion in 1982; Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to him in 1997 for discovery of Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) that was mainly caused by prions. Prions get accumulated in brain at much higher levels that cause permanent damage to the nerve cells which cause various neurological symptoms. These infectious particles are different in behavior from conventional bacteria and viruses which cannot be destroyed by exposing to heat and radiation. Even antiviral and antibacterial medicines have no effects on prions; hence, presently, there is lack of valuable treatment for CJD (Belay et al., 2003). Understanding Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) Basically, CJD is a very rare form of deadly form of dementia which can spread fastly in the body from brain. Prions are mostly found in brain and are harmless; when they are not given proper shapes, they may have effects that can be devastating which can even attack brain, kill its cells and create holes or gaps in tissue of brain (Ironside, 2009). Prion diseases have been found in both animals and humans; such diseases were in news of mid 1980s along with Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) epidemic which was referred to as Mad Cow disease, it is a cattle disease. In humans, it is known as CJD. The disease is found in about one to two people among million people worldwide. Types of CJD There are basically two types of CJD i.e. Classic CJD and Variant CJD (vCJD). The three types of classic CJD are Sporadic CJD, Familial or genetic CJD and Iatrogenic or Acquired CJD. Sporadic CJD More than 90% of people diagnosed with CJD are suffering from this type of CJD and it is mainly found in people aged in between 45 to 75. There are no specific symptoms for this CJD (Shah et al., 2009); however, some early symptoms such as depression may be present but it can quickly progress into confusion and problems of memory which is commonly observed in dementia, followed by loss of balance and coordination along with progressive blindness (Piouti et al., 2012). Familial or genetic CJD Familial or genetic CJD is one of the rare genetic condition in which the persons genes are inherited from one parent who causes the protein to get mutated into a prion in later stages of life that trigger the symptoms of CJD. In other words, it appears in families that have abnormal gene. About 7% of cases have this type of CJD. In order to diagnose it, blood test is done; person having this abnormal gene has 50% chance of transmitting it to children. The other rare form of this CJD are Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI) and Gerstmann-Strà ¤ussler-Scheinker (GSS); both of these are rarely found in people (Brand et al., 2006). It occurs in people who have age of 50 years. Iatrogenic or Acquired CJD This type of CJD is rarely found in people as it is found in those people who get CJD while accidental transmission that takes place during a medical procedure like corneal grafts, instruments in neurosurgery, human pituitary hormone therapy or human dura-mater grafts (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2010). Variant CJD People having average age of 28 years are found to be suffering from Variant CJD. It is usually developed from eating of beef that was infected with BSE. It can even occur with blood transfusion in which variant CJD is transmitted from one person to other. Once the symptoms are identified, the disease spreads quickly in the body (Tattum et al., 2010). Signs and Symptoms of CJD In many of the cases, classic CJD looks similar to various other dementias; the disease comes on fastly and then declines the ability of thinking as symptoms start appearing. Some of the most commonly found symptoms are that the person may have swings in mood, problems related to memory, interest absence and not behaving like oneself, having difficulty while walking such as keeping balance, dementia rapid progressions such as loss of memory and other thinking capabilities, problems in vision such as blindness, stiffening of limbs, twitching or jerks in muscles, feeling of clumsiness, speaking problem such as slurred speech, difficulty in swallowing and akinetic mutism in which person can move eyes and appear to be alert but can neither move voluntarily or speak (Espinosa, Bensalem-Owen, Fee, 2010; Sikorska et al., 2004). However, people who are in CJDs later stages face problems such as losing awareness as it can be seen in various neurological examinations. While the disease in the early stages, CJD patients are scared and it can be a distressing situation for them; it is usually associated with hallucinations that are visual which means seeing things that are not present there which might develop uncomfortable feeling in them (Andrews, 2012). People who are suffering from sporadic CJD usually live than twelve months after the appearance of signs and symptoms; the maximum life is two years. Before death, some people fall into condition of coma; the main reasons of death are heart failure, pneumonia or respiratory failure such as breathing problem (Rossetti Dunand, 2007). Among the most common symptoms found in Variant CJD people are changes in behavior, depression, withdrawal from social gatherings, difficulty in walking, dementia that is progressive, unable to do movement or speak and pain and odd kind of sensation in limbs or face (LiveScience Staff, 2012). Causes of CJD According to studies of Ironside (2009) and Tattum et al. (2010), CJD is caused by slow virus or other small organisms. The agent that causes this disease has several characteristics which are different from viruses and bacterias. The organisms are difficult to kill as they dont have genetic information on them in the form Nucleic acids such as DNA or RNA and has long period of incubation before symptoms are made visible. However, it has been found that it is mostly caused by prion proteins that can occur in both normal and infectious form. The normal forms have same shapes as that of amino acids but infectious ones differ in their shapes from normal proteins. Once they appear, abnormal ones start to get aggregated which start affecting the brain. Only 5-10% cases are inherited ones that arise either from mutation or changes in gene which are responsible for controlling the formation of normal prion proteins. Diagnosis of CJD CJD is difficult to diagnose especially when it is in its initial stages; there is no specific test available for diagnosing in living person. Only way to make sure that person had CJD is by examining the tissue of brain after his death. However, there are some other tests and procedures can be used for diagnosis of the disease such as medical history examination as it will help doctors in learning the persons symptoms and signs when they get started as CJD gets spread quickly; Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in which brains picture is taken to identify the difference between various types of CJD; Computerized Tomography (CT) scan in which brains picture will be taken to diagnose the disease; Puncture of Lumbar which means taking fluid form the spine of a person by using syringe and a needle, it is done to identify the infections of brain; blood tests to identify if there is any chance of genetic CJD; Electroencephalogram (ECG) in which electrical activity of brain is measured and b rain autopsy in which tissue of brain is examined after persons death (Puoti et al., 2012; Shah et al., 2009). Treatment for CJD Up till now, there has been no success in developing right treatment for CJD. The researchers have done numerous tests with many drugs such as steroids, antiviral agents, antibiotics, amantadine, acyclovir and many more but they have not been able to find perfect cure for this disease (Puoti et al., 2012). Some studies are still in progression to develop appropriate treatment for patients but none of them have been successful in benefiting the human beings. The treatment for CJD that is being followed by various doctors is aimed at alleviation of symptoms and trying to make the individuals as comfortable as the experts can do so that they have the will power of fighting against the disease. Some of the opiate drugs can relieve pain when people suffer from it but the drugs such as Sodium Valproate and Clonzaepam definitely help in relieving of myoclonus. When the disease is in later stages, position of person is changed frequently so that he gets comfortable and bedsores can be prevented. For draining urine, a catheter can be used as it helps in controlling the function of bladder and artificial feeding can also be used. Precautions for CJD Although there are chances that CJD gets transmitted by being careless during medical procedures but still people need to take care of various things that can help them in remain protected from this disease. CJD is not a contagious disease that can be transmitted either by social or sexual contact or via air or feeding, touching or even taking care of person suffering from CJD at home. some of the basic precautionary measures that need to be followed are washing hands either before eating or drinking, covering wounds or cuts with bandages that are waterproof, protecting face and hands from being exposes to blood or fluids of body of person who is affected by this disease and taking special care in blood transfusions so that CJD infected person does not give his blood. In order to avoid variant CJD, beef from selected countries should be eaten; countries that have high risk of TSE are more vulnerable to risk. The only options available for avoiding this type of CJD are either to eat beef from countries that emphasize on strict regulations on its quality and avoid eating parts of cattle that have high risks such as spinal cord, intestines, brain and eyes. Conclusion Creutzfeldt Jakob disease (CJD) is among the fastest growing disease that is being faced by many people worldwide. It has become important for researchers to identify right course of treatment for this disease so that patients can get full recovery. In order to make sure that people who have genetic CJD are given appropriate treatment before symptoms start to become visible, it is important that people get their blood tests done at regular intervals. When any of the signs and symptoms is observed in people, it is advised that they contact a doctor immediately who can ensure that right tests are done for identification of this disease. Still, the researchers have to do extensive work for identifying the main causes of CJD along with developing a remedial solution. Among all the available options, the best one is to contact any well-known doctors who are specialist in neurology who will take the patient in right treatment method. Hence, everyone needs to make sure that they have complete information about this disease so that they can face it with determination and strong will power. Palliative Care for Cancer Patients | Literature Review Palliative Care for Cancer Patients | Literature Review Gretha Cabral Literature Review Cancer has become a global concern in the recent decades and various researches have raised the need for palliative care for cancer patients besides the treatment that they receive from their respective hospitals. Researches show that palliative care prolongs the life of patients more as compared on relying the treatments alone. According to research conducted by Julia Medew, patients who are suffering from lung cancer could enjoy longer, quality life and low depression where they bestowed palliative care immediately after they are diagnosed with lung cancer, as opposed to starting at the late stages of the disease. According to this study, Medew aimed that; the findings would change the views of both the patients and the doctors on the quality of palliative care (Medew, 2011). The care aims at improving the quality of life of the for patients with progressive, serious illnesses through paying high attention to the control of their symptoms and pain, recognizing their spiritual and p sychological needs and providing the necessary support to the patients and their families. Medew`s study divided 151 patients with lung cancer into two groups in order to clearly outline the quality of palliative care (Medew, 2011). The first group of lung cancer patients was to solely rely on the standard treatment that the patients would receive from the health facilities while the second group was to receive the same treatment that would be accompanied by immediate referral to palliative care within a time range of twelve weeks after diagnose. Consequently, the findings showed that, the average survival period of patients in the second group was around three months longer and those patients reported living a high quality life and far much better moods as compared to the first group. Moreover, this American study was seconded by Ian Haines, who was a Melbourne cancer specialist who recommended that, palliative care should be administered by doctors to cancer patients. This suggestion was made because most health professionals, cancer patients and many other individuals realized that palliative care can serve as the only default measure of managing cancer when all other measures have been exhausted. He also suggested that, if early referral of cancer patients to professional palliative care can be an expensive measure, the governments should subsidize by increasing the allocation of more funds to the ministry of health since its value outweighs the costs that may be associated with it (Medew, 2011). Professor Haines also gave another case study that recently followed 333 cancer patients up to their death. The study also divided the patients into groups where one involved patients who were hospitalized to receive cancer treatments while the other group was treated and discharged in order to receive additional palliative care at their respective homes. The study findings showed that, patients in the first group died within a short time interval than those in the second group. In addition, those patients in the first group also experienced emotional and physical distress than those patients in the second group who died while receiving palliative care at their homes. The study concluded that, faster occurrence of deaths in patients who are admitted in health facilities was highly contributed by high extents of grief and more post-traumatic stress that arose from the family members and friends of those patients (Medew, 2011). His study also established that early referral of patients to palliative care helps caregivers and patients to understand their treatment options better especially at the end of their life. Furthermore, this early referral helps to reduce debilitating expensive treatments such as chemotherapy and excessive utilization of limited medical resources. In addition, most cancer patients are not used to palliative care in most countries and this unfamiliarity calls for the need for providing information to patients, their family members and friends sensitizing to them the quality of palliative care. According to research conducted by Ms. Etheredge, one of the officials of hospice palliative care society, she found that, palliative care frightens most individuals including cancer patients since most people are used to the tradition of patients being admitted to hospitals for treatment. Therefore, discharging cancer patients after treating them and then requiring them to seek palliative care at their respective homes elevate stress to patients since the latter concludes that they are being sent to meet their deaths at home. She suggested that, the governments should construct a cancer hospice in a strategic point since according to her, the environment where palliative care is provided matters most (Furse, 1999). She further suggested that, any other hospice to be constructed near to water and bus route since these are the two primary necessities that assist the caregivers and the families. Moreover, she also seconded the decision of the health minister of Australia in launching the national palliative care awareness week that would inform people about the equity and access of this care (Brigid, 2011). During the launching of this palliative care awareness campaign, the health minister also outlined the palliative strategic plan to inform the services that palliative care offers. In addition, brochures printed in Greek, Chinese, Vietnamese, Italian and polishes were distributed to different people during that week outlining palliative care services. This distribution of brochures was to enhance the reach of palliative care information to more people especially those who both don’t speak English and are not aware of the services provided by palliative care. In addition, according to Mark Colvin, most of the cancer patients in Australia are not aware of the existence, quality and the services that are provided by palliative care centers because most doctors do not sensitize and refer these patients to palliative services. According to study that surveyed a sample of one thousand doctors all over the country and within the duration of one year, more than eight hundred doctors do not refer cancer patients to palliative care. Merrilyn stone, for example, was not referred to palliative care when she was initially diagnosed with breast cancer in 1990 (Barrett, 2004). This lack of referent made her to still firm her believe that palliative care is intended for the dying people and this made it harder for her to understand the value of palliative care when her condition came back eleven years later. Moreover, according to Afaf Girgis, this lack of referring patients to palliative care during the early stages of cancer development enhances the perception of the community and the patients that palliative care is intended for individuals who are at the death`s door and this is much untrue. Girgis further outlines this lack of referring cancer patients to palliative care predisposes the patient to more and severe consequences when the disease progresses to its advanced stages. In the long run, the particular patients live less additional days, as opposed to when they would have been early referred to palliative care services (Barrett, 2004). However, according to Rebecca Barrett, the study found that, very few health professionals who used to refer their patients to palliative care. In addition, in case these health professionals happen to refer cancer patients to palliative care, the latter was mostly intended to control pain but not for emotional or psychological support or legal and financial support. Consecutively, according to Dr. Sundquist, most health professionals concentrate more on curing the cancer patients and most are unaware of the quality of palliative care. He further challenges this doctors` works and suggests that, the latter needs to understand more is needed to cancer patients besides treatment services (Barrett, 2004). Moreover, cancer patients need additional services that include practical and emotional support that involves palliative care. Moreover, in Australia, Whyalla hospital developed project of constructing Whyalla cancer treatment Centre that would cancer services almost at par with the same treatment services that were offered in Adelaide. Initially, many cancer patients were forced to travel long distances in order to access cancer services at Adelaide hospital (Bruce, 2012). The construction of Whyalla cancer Centre aimed at reducing the transportation burden of cancer patients to long distances. According to whale news, the cancer center would offer a wide range of palliative services to the cancer patients especially those who were recently diagnosed with cancer. According to the chairman of his cancer project Mr. champion, the cancer Centre would offer services such as creating space for training activities and research, counseling of cancer patients, chemotherapy, outpatient care services among others. Additionally, the Whyalla cancer Centre would operate in cooperation with the already established Adelai de health facility in order to share health professionals and other technical equipments. This cooperation statement was echoed by Mr. Champion who said â€Å"the specialists will determine if the complexity of the cancer requires the patient to receive treatment in Adelaide or if they can remain in Whyalla.† (Bruce, 2012) However, the recent researches show that most patients suffering from cancer would prefer to meet their deaths at their homes rather than at the health facilities. These researches recommend that health professionals should follow the wishes of cancer patients on where the latter wants to receive palliative care. In connection to this, Eurobodalla health services have provided ambulance protocols that would facilitate doctors to respond to the emergency calls from the homes of cancer patients (Oconnor, 2014). These services would enable cancer patients to receive palliative care at their homes as they wish. References Barrett, R. (2004). Cancer patients missing out on palliative care; palliative support. Sydney, Australian Broadcasting Corporation. ABC Premium News Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/458087832? Brigid, O. (2011). Palliative care boosted. Melbourne, News Digital Media. Vic.Sunday Herald Sun Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/867896592? Bruce, K. (2012). Good news for cancer patients. Whyalla, S. Aust, Fairfax Media Publications Pty Limited. Whyalla News Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1081480966? Furse, L. (1999). Strategy for better palliative care. Canberra, A.C.T, Fairfax Media Publications Pty Limited. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1012751431? Medew, J. (2011). Early palliative care could prolong life. Canberra, A.C.T, Fairfax Media Publications Pty Limited. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1020447587? Medew, J. (2011). Palliative care extends length and quality of life. Sydney, N.S.W., Fairfax Digital. Sydney Morning Herald Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/854392582? Oconnor, K. (2014). Treatment available closer to home for palliative patients. Batemans Bay, N.S.W, Fairfax Media Publications Pty Limited. Bay Post Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1516592167? Gretha Cabral s3483440

How Nuclear Power Works :: essays research papers

How Nuclear Power Works Nuclear power plants provide about 17 percent of the world's electricity. Some countries depend more on nuclear power for electricity than others. In France, for instance, about 75 percent of the electricity is generated from nuclear power, according to the International Atomic Energy Agency. In the United States, nuclear power supplies about 15 percent of the electricity overall, but some states get more power from nuclear plants than others. There are more than 400 nuclear power plants around the world, with more than 100 in the United States. The dome-shaped containment building at the Shearon Harris Nuclear Power Plant near Raleigh, NC Have you ever wondered how a nuclear power plant works or how safe nuclear power is? In this article, we will examine how a nuclear reactor and a power plant work. We'll explain nuclear fission and give you a view inside a nuclear reactor. Uranium Uranium is a fairly common element on Earth, incorporated into the planet during the planet's formation. Uranium is originally formed in stars. Old stars exploded, and the dust from these shattered stars aggregated together to form our planet. Uranium-238 (U-238) has an extremely long half-life> (4.5 billion years), and therefore is still present in fairly large quantities. U-238 makes up 99 percent of the uranium on the planet. U-235 makes up about 0.7 percent of the remaining uranium found naturally, while U-234 is even more rare and is formed by the decay of U-238. (Uranium-238 goes through many stages or alpha and beta decay to form a stable isotope of lead, and U-234 is one link in that chain.) Uranium-235 has an interesting property that makes it useful for both nuclear power production and for nuclear bomb production. U-235 decays naturally, just as U-238 does, by alpha radiation. U-235 also undergoes spontaneous fission a small percentage of the time. However, U-235 is one of the few materials that can undergo induced fission. If a free neutron runs into a U-235 nucleus, the nucleus will absorb the neutron without hesitation, become unstable and split immediately. See How Nuclear Radiation Works for complete details. Nuclear Fission The animation below shows a uranium-235 nucleus with a neutron approaching from the top. As soon as the nucleus captures the neutron, it splits into two lighter atoms and throws off two or three new neutrons (the number of ejected neutrons depends on how the U-235 atom happens to split).

Turning Points in History :: essays research papers fc

Turning Points in History   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Turning points in history can mean a change in the way the things are done in the past, sometimes for the better, and other times for the worse. Two notable turning points in history were the Industrial Revolution and also World War I. These both had some political, social and cultural impacts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Industrial Revolution was a time of great change and increased efficiency. No more would be goods be produced by sole means of farming and agriculture, but now by the use of machinery and factories. Technology was beginning to increase along with the food supply as well as the population. However, this increase in population would greatly impact the social aspect of that time. Urbanization was becoming much more widespread. Cities were becoming overwhelmingly crowded and there was an increase in disease as well as harsh child labor. Although child labor would be reduced somewhat due to unions, the Industrial Revolution still contained both it’s positive and negative results.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   World War I was another major turning point in history. This turning point consisted in the way war was fought and how it has changed due to the advances in technology that took place during this time in the 1900’s. War was triggered in the Balkans where the Ottoman Empire had once maintained control. Industrialization and technology had both contributed to the advances in the development of weapons. This devastatingly was the cause of millions of deaths in World War I. War was now fought in trenches and they used machine guns as well as tanks and grenades. There was definitely a turning point in the way war would be fought. However, the most important turning point in the war had to be the involvement of the US. The US tried to remain neutral in the war but ended up joining the Allies. Thanks to the US’s involvement, however, the Allies received the help needed to win the war.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion we can see that revolutions and wars can lead to positive and negative turning points.

Infant Motor Developm

Infant Motor DevelopmentI.   First MonthA.  Ã‚  Ã‚   can already raise its head for a momentB.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   twists its head from side to side when lying on rearC.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   hands remain grittedD.  Ã‚  Ã‚   has already a sturdy clutch reflexE.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   stares and goes after object moving ahead of him/her (range of 45 degrees)F.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   performs husky soundsG.  Ã‚  Ã‚   gazes closely at parents when they speak to him/herII.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Second MonthA.  Ã‚  Ã‚   raises its head about 45 degrees when resting on stomachB.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   head nods forward when grasp in sitting positionC.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   clutch reflex declinesD.  Ã‚  Ã‚   goes after hanging objects with eyesE.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   makes smilesIII.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Third MonthA.  Ã‚  Ã‚   begins to stand partial load on both legs when clutched in a standing positionB.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   able to grasp head up when sitting but still nods frontwardC.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   can lift head and shoulders when resting on stomach (amid 45 and 90 degrees)D.  Ã‚  Ã‚   stands load on forearmsE.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   grasps objects but does not get in touch with themF.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   grasps own hands and drags at bedspreads and clothesG.  Ã‚  Ã‚   goes after object (180 degrees)H.  Ã‚  Ã‚   makes more soundsI.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   smiles when sees recognizable features.IV. Fourth MonthA.  Ã‚  Ã‚   has already a fine head controlB.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   sits with helpC.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   stands some load on legs when clutched erectD.  Ã‚  Ã‚   lifts head and chest off plane (90 degree angle)E.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   turns from back to sideF.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   discovers and plays with handsG.  Ã‚  Ã‚   attempts to get in touch with but missesH.  Ã‚  Ã‚   clutches objects with two handsV.   Fifth MonthA.    sign of teething startsB.    grasps head up when sittingC.    turns from abdomen to rearD.    p laces feet to mouth when resting on rearE.      freely holds objects and gets objects openly to mouthVI. Sixth MonthA.  Ã‚  Ã‚   starts to masticate and nibbleB.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   raises head when dragged to a sitting positionC.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   turns form rear to abdomenD.  Ã‚  Ã‚   holds and manages small objectsE.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   clutches bottleF.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   seizes feet and drags to mouthG.  Ã‚  Ã‚   bends body to make out an objectH.  Ã‚  Ã‚   twists head from side to side and then stares up or downVII. Seventh MonthA.   learns to sit without help (may bend forwards on two hands)B.   stands full load on feetC.   springs when grasped in standing positionD.    shifts objects from one hand to anotherE.    hits objects on planesF.      and able to grip on small objectsVIII.      Eight MonthA.    sits fine without helpB.      stands load on legs and may rest holding on to fixturesC.      lifts out up objects by index, fourth, and fifth fi nger alongside thumbD.  Ã‚  Ã‚   able to discharge objectsE.      drags cords to get objectsF.       seeks for objects that are farIX.    Ninth MonthA.  Ã‚  Ã‚   starts swarmingB.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   drags up to standing position from sittingC.      sits for extended time (at most 10 minutes)D.    employs thumb and index finger to lift up objectsE.      places arms ahead of face to shun having it washedX.    Tenth MonthA.    goes from abdomen to sitting positionB.    sits by rundownC.   recuperates balance effortlessly while sittingD.    raises one foot to make a step while standingE.      wields byeF.      recurs actions that draw attentionXI.    Eleventh MonthA.  Ã‚  Ã‚   learns to stroll gripping on to fixtures or other objectsB.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   puts one object following another into a potC.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   returns back to lift up an object while sittingD.  Ã‚  Ã‚   able to control objects out of stretched fitting placesE.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   turns a ball when requested, and quakes head for rebuffXII.   Twelfth MonthA.  Ã‚  Ã‚   strolls with one hand graspB.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   bears and tries first steps unaidedC.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   rests from standing position aloneD.  Ã‚  Ã‚   tries to construct two chunk towers but may fall shortE.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   goes after fast moving objectsF.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   grips to parents in odd circumstancesG.  Ã‚  Ã‚   seeks object where it was previously seenReferences:Piek, J. P. (2006). Infant Motor Development. Human Kinetics Publishers.Gallahue, D. L. (2006). Understanding Motor Development: Infants, Children, Adolescents,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Adults. McGraw-Hill Companies.

National Fabricators

Key Events/Case Synopsis National Fabricators Inc. is a company that specializes in the manufacturing of lockers, school furniture, toilet partitions, steel shelving, and is now currently owned by Tom Kruger after buying out $75,000 of shares from shareholders in 1992. The industry is very competitive as costs are rising and prices being cut while the economy declines at the same time. As the president of National Fabricators, Tom Kruger needs to bring the company back on its feet in order to generate profits and reduce its losses of $480,315 and outstanding bank loans of $784,000.Tom Kruger also predicts that sales would fall as much as 10% during the 1994 fiscal year due to government cutbacks on medical and educational spending as well as a sluggish level of consumer confidence. Tom Kruger is now faced with trying to get a 60 day extension for his temporary line of credit in order to get the company to start making profits again. Problem Statement and Objectives To save the compan y, Tom Kruger needs to get an extension of 60 days on his temporary line of credit so that he can keep losses to a minimum and start generating more profits.At the same time, the economy is declining, competitors are setting low prices, and the government is cutting back on educational spending. Tom Kruger realizes that his plant is not being utilized at full capacity and most of the operations were being primarily financed on bank credit due to insufficient cash at hand. To address these problems, Tom Kruger is now planning on developing a new plant layout for efficiency as well as requesting a line of credit extension in order to finance debt. Situation Analysis PortersAs we can see from the case, the metal industry is not an attractive industry because of high competition with low bids, unstable economy, high bargaining power of buyers, and high start up costs. Since the buyers have very little suppliers to choose from to do business with, it can be concluded that suppliers have bargaining power in this industry. Buyers on the other hand only have power when they are specialized at what they do and offer a very low price. Substitution is quite limited due to different specifications offered by the major companies.Barriers to entry on the other hand are very high due to the huge amount of capital needed to get a foot in to the industry. All in all competition is very high in this industry and one must bid aggressively in order to gain a contract. However, this is hard when everyone is giving their lowest bid. SWOT Analysis Overall, for National Fabricators the weaknesses outweigh the strengths for due to its failure towards managing both finance and operations for approximately 10 years.The threats also outweigh the opportunities mostly due the intense competition whcih provides a negative trend towards profits for National Fabricators within the industry. Strengths: †¢ The company has kept all of their old employees at the management level and this wil l allow them to keep stability while the company is under new ownership. †¢ With a strong sales team being compenstated on a commission basis, this will isnpire each employ to work harder to make and close sales; which in the long run will increase company profits. National Fabricator has contracts from purchaser who are very unlikely to default on their payables, because majority of them come from the government. †¢ Mr. Kruger, is well experienced for this position mostly due to his education and qualifications Weaknesses: †¢ The company lacks in a sufficient inventory management and cost management system, which impacts profits. †¢ With a deficiency of cash flow it forced the company to purchase materials from more costly warehouses other than Steelmills which is cheaper, which inreturn had increased manufacturing cost. Inproper scheduling and status reporting for work in progress caused a major ineffectiveness on plant capacity use, which had openly increased operating cost and reduced net profits. Opportunities: †¢ Buying from the Steelmills will result in an increase of operating profit while costs are being decreased. †¢ The company has the opportunity to grow in various markets and aquire new customers such as malls, hotels, offices, and motels not only in Canada but as well as the United States. Threats: †¢ Tremendous price and wage competition in a recurring industry will lead to additional losses in profits. The highest risk for National Fabricators is the three companies which are dominating the industry that have the investment ability to control industry standards and requirements, which could lead to a decrease in profits. †¢ Due to the long term contracts from the government it is impacting the company’s cash flow in a negative trend. Historical Financial Analysis †¢ Sales fluctuate due to the frequently cyclic nature of the industry but they aim to remain above 3 million annually. †¢ In 1 993 cost of goods sold being 90% of sales and 9. 6% gross profit of sales.Company’s lack of ability to manage inventory and lack of cash forced them to order from more expensive (12-15%more) warehouse than steel mills. †¢ Net profit margin has been negative and no major patterns over the 9 year period on net profit since the trend of the industry is based mostly on economic factors, and whether or not they secure contracts. Due to high percentage of COGS they are only left with a net profit of $980 or 0. 024% of sales in 1993. As a result, if the company lower the material cost, the profit margin will improve drastically. †¢ In 1984 current ratio went from 2. 07 to 1. 2 in 1993 which still is at an acceptable level, mainly due to the fact that operations were losing money in the past few years and there was a large cash drain on the company which resulted in the lowering of the current ratio. †¢ Operations were being financed by National Fabricators bank credit which resulted in outstanding bank loans of $784,000; this could cause serious problems on their credit rating from the local bank due to the worse intereage coverage ratio. †¢ Their average age of receivables in days is 78. 79 which had been steady around that number except in 1993 with 101 days mainly due to the holdback on large accounts.Since it is taking longer for them to convert accounts receivable into cash, the liquidity ability for the company is getting worse. | |1993 |1992 |1991 |1990 | |Liquidity | | | | | |Current Ratio |1. 12 |1. 34 |1. 32 |1. 58 | |Quick Ratio |0. 70 |0. 4 |0. 81 |0. 81 | |Profitability | | | | | |%Sales Growth |25. 7% |(17. 6%) |14. 4% | | |Gross Margin |9. 6% |10. 7% |7. 0% |7. 0% | |Net Margin |0. 02% |(1. 8%) |(5. 6%) |(6. %) | |Expenses/Sales |10. 0% |13. 3% |12. 8% |14. 1% | |ROE |0. 2% |(11. 4%) |(37. 8%) |(26. 3%) | |ROA |0. 04% |(4. 1%) |(12. 8%) |(11. 9%) | | | | | | | |Debt/Assets |75. % |64. 2% |66. 1% |54. 7% | |Debt/Equity |310. 4 % |179. 4% |195. 0% |121. 2% | Recommendation and Analysis We have chosen to recommend alternative #1, which will focus on improving their profits because they will be reducing the cost of materials from purchasing directly from Steel Mills rather than buying from the warehouses. By doing so this will help them convince Confederation Bank.Purchasing from producers rather than the warehouses will significantly save us an approximate 12-15%. This can help drastically with their profits being made. Another way to improve profit is by increasing profit margins and to do so they need to cut the cost of materials, which will be approximately 68%. By having cut material cost by 13. 5% National Fabricators will have $314,600, which is the amount they saved from the materials and it would increase their gross profits by that amount. Having laid out this plan everything looks very convincing but there are a couple set backs, which need to be worked out.Delivery is three months once purchased from the producers directly rather than one-day delivery from the warehouses, this may cause problems for daily operations. National Fabricators now has to pay off their suppliers in 30 days payments. It used to be 60-90 days but the change requires the need for more cash on hand. Nationals Fabricators will require the financial support of Confederation Bank in order to solve these set backs that will take place if they don't receive the help financial help they require. Being able to execute this plan we believe that National Fabricators would be able to convince the bank to extend the loan.This will benefit the company because not doing so will increase the financial problems. The reason being we didn't choose alternative 2 was because it was just too risky and way too costly especially with the risk at hand. Yes it was to better their sales but factor in that their attempts to migrate in the U. S. market also have the risk of not being successful. Also the number of other compani es already settled their will give a great competitive market and putting all this together would just show that there is much more risk at hand than reward. Exhibits and Analysis: Attached on next page

Storey’s Three Comopnent Model

Moving on to the second part of the question looking at Storey’s , â€Å"Three Component Model† and how useful it is in identifying the key characteristics of successful growth businesses. Most of the small businesses do not grow beyond their classification as a micro firm, very few of the small firms rise to become a medium-size enterprise, and even fewer rise to become large companies in the future. Storey (1994) has identified three key components in the analysis of the growth of the small firms, they are influenced by the characteristics of the entrepreneur, the characteristics of the organization; and the types of strategy associated. Various different characteristics of each component can lead to a different type of growth within the SME. The characteristics of the entrepreneur are widely accepted as the vital ingredient that influences growth. For example, the personal goals of an entrepreneur are likely to influence why a business was started in the first place, as well as the strength of the firm’s growth orientation once it was established. Storey’s places less emphasis on personality per se and more on the personal characteristics which influence access to resources. These include * Motivation: This is likely to be the most indispensable and essential action or a commitment by the entrepreneur which makes a considerable difference in the growth of the enterprise. * Previous management experience: Earlier knowhow of organizing people and processes is important in maintaining growth. * Demographics of the entrepreneur: This is essentially with regard to the personality traits of the entrepreneur viz. Age and Education. These two traits can influence the growth of the firm, Entrepreneurs with higher educational qualifications are more likely to find high-tech and knowledge-based firms which in turn can be linked with higher growth rate of the firm. * Team management over individual management: Access to a wide range of resources, skills, experiences, advice and other resources is important to growth. A group of entrepreneurs are more liable to have the attributes wanted than just one person. Alongside these characteristics are more personal ones. Owners have a need to be independent and want to be their own managers. They believe that they can control and change the environment within which they work, to their benefit. They are often high achievers and are looking for recognition of their success. † (Burns, 2001). The characteristics of the enterprise also have an influence on its growth prospects: Ownership and Legal form: A limited company is more likely to grow than a sole trader or partner ship. Limited companies offer greater goodwill thereby attracting more customers and resources that it needs to accelerate its growth. It is also possible that as the companies develop they acquire a limited liability status so that the legal form is a result of growth. Firms Age: Younger firms tend to grow more and faster than the existing old firms, which reflects the need of the younger firm to attain a significant level of ‘critical mass’ to survive in the marketplace. Firms Size: Small firms find it very hard to grow to level of the bigger firms, as they lack the resources, skills and competitive edge. One of the main reasons being the entrepreneurs with a micro-firm do not wish to grow because of the reasons stated above. â€Å"Management devolution is essential for growth as it becomes impossible for the entrepreneur to manage on their own. Those firms that recruit experienced managers from larger firms are likely to be more successful. † (Storey, 1994). Storey’s review of area where management strategy may influence the growth of small firms includes: Introduction of new products: Companies cannot rely on a smaller product or service range for growth. They continuous innovation in the form of new products and services is a key to growth. This also includes modification of the existing products. Sharing of Equity: Willingness to share equity with external individuals or organizations was identified in small firms that actually achieved high rates of growth. Market position: Adopting defined niche markets is a key ingredient for the growth of the company